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  Snow Trenches

  You need about one metre of snow – the deeper the better – into which you dig a simple trench. Make the bottom wider than the top, especially if there are two of you. If it’s not quite deep enough build up a bit at the sides.

  Side view of a snow grave. Dig a trench, then make a tunnel from one end running back to the surface.

  Now smooth off the sleeping bench, insulating it with brushwood, if you don’t have your sleeping mat with you. Then dig a cold hole next to the door; this acts as a sump for the cold air. Then dig an entrance and move your kit inside, and put the roof on. This can be tricky, especially if your trench is too wide. The simplest way if the snow is compact, is to cut blocks and place them over the top, then add more snow. If you find you need support for the snow blocks use brushwood or tentsheets. You can use skis, but only as a last resort: if you do, put them in upside down, as this helps to stop them freezing in. Then add more snow.

  If the snow is too shallow to dig a snow grave or snow hole, you can make an effective shelter by building walls of snow and putting a roof on top.

  Snow hole or snow cave

  If there are two or more of you, you need a large bank or drift of snow about three metres wide and two metres deep. An avalanche probe will come in handy to gauge depth. Put on waterproofs if you have them as you will get wet.

  There are two methods of digging: the tunnel method, and the block and cave method. The latter can be used when the snow is compact enough to be cut in blocks. Dig along the full length of the intended cave, using as many men as will fit, while one digs the entrance off to the side.

  Block and cave method (top view)

  The men sleep together on the raised sleeping platform, taking advantage of shared bodily warmth.

  Tunnel method (top view)

  You can build a raised sleeping platform to one side of the trench or, in this case, on both sides.

  Once you have dug the sleeping benches, build up the open side of the cave with the excavated snowblocks until it is sealed in. Only the entrance remains open.

  Using the tunnel method, only one man can work until the building of the sleeping benches is started; it therefore takes much longer than the block and cave method.

  Snow house (igloo)

  The igloo – the traditional home of the Eskimo – needs experience and practice to build, and snow must be of the right quality to cut into blocks. Loose snow is useless; and the more granular it is, the smaller the igloo must be.

  LIVING IN SNOW SHELTERS

  Follow these rules for safety and comfort.

  1 Strip off to avoid sweating; the sweat may freeze later. But wear waterproofs when digging or you will get soaked.

  2 Make sure your shelter is adequately ventilated at all times.

  3 Mark the entrance to your shelter so that you can always find it. This will also help rescuers if the cave collapses.

  4 Brush loose snow from yourselves before entering. This prevents damp developing on your clothing in the warm interior of the shelter.

  5 Take all your equipment in, ESPECIALLY a shovel.

  6 Remove wet clothing and try to dry it overnight.

  7 Take your boots into your sleeping bag and keep them near your stomach area. This will help to dry them.

  8 Don’t boil water for too long; its vapour will cause condensation and dampness.

  9 Keep a candle burning to give light and warmth – but keep a watch on it.

  Work from the inside, cutting out the centre and using your carefully cut blocks to form the base of the wall. Work progressively upwards in a spiral, shaping the blocks as you go, and leaning them just slightly further inwards with each spiral.

  Finally a key block is inserted – carefully – either by widening the centre hole or trimming the key block until it drops gently into place. The wall should be chest to shoulder high.

  The entrance to your snow house should be small; a large doorway is simply an easy way for heat to escape. Ideally, it should be an S-shaped tunnel away from the prevailing wind. In deep snow, this can be underground. Construct sleeping benches inside and fill in any holes in the walls with loose snow.

  Snow wall

  In dire emergency a simple semi-circular snow wall will keep the worst of the weather at bay and provide shelter from the wind, allowing you to cook and sleep for a limited period.

  These are your options. You will find a snowhole rather oppressive at first, but it is the most comfortable and warm form of shelter in the Arctic and much preferred by Arctic troops

  FOOD AND DRINK

  ARCTIC RATIONS

  However tired you are, you must eat all your rations. In the Arctic you burn enormous amounts of energy, and your rations are geared to replace this loss fully. It’s all freeze-dried for convenience and lightness, and you melt snow to add to it.

  Meat/rice rations must be simmered for about 20 minutes to make sure they have completely absorbed the moisture – otherwise, when eaten, they may cause stomach pains and will certainly contribute towards dehydration. The diet in the ration pack is balanced and is very nutritious, with plenty of “brews” in the form of tea, coffee and beef stock. Again, you must drink well, and one of the cook’s main jobs will be to see that plenty of hot water is available to top up Thermos flasks.

  You have four types of pack to choose from. Breakfast is always porridge and hot chocolate. The main meal is usually eaten in the evening, and you carry the snack pack in your windproof for eating throughout the rest of the day. You may get a little fed up with the chocolate, but eat it, it contributes as much as anything else to your diet and wellbeing. One little tip is to carry some curry powder with you to add to any food you’re getting bored with.

  DUTIES OF THE COOK

  Follow these drills and responsibilities and you will ease congestion in your tent or tentsheet when you first pitch it. A familiar routine will also keep you spirits up! The cook should:

  1 Be the first man in – with his cooker and lamp – and may raise the pole.

  2 Arrange the sleeping mats and bags as they are passed in to him.

  3 Arrange the collection of rations, and clean snow.

  4 Cook the rations and with the help of other members of the tentgroup, arrange

  • The filling of stoves and lamps. Initially all stoves should be used, snow takes a long time to melt.

  • The collection of more clean snow and ice for melting

  • The collection of rubbish

  • A constant supply of hot water. Empty flasks are used for storage.

  5 Organize a hot drink, if flasks are empty.

  6 Use his imagination to make the ration as satisfying as possible; for example curry powder, onions and bacon all add flavour.

  7 Have the next meal prepared, as far as possible; this saves time and effort later.

  Remember the health and morale of your group hinges on your expertise and hard work as the cook.

  Lamps and cookers

  There are various types, but they work on the same principle. All burn deleaded petrol (naphtha), which is the only fuel that should be used, except in emergency. Leaded fuel causes poisoning and “tenteye”. Even with naphtha you need some ventilation.

  Your cookers are vital equipment. Check them constantly – nuts, bolts, and gaskets tend to come loose and carry spare parts in your pulk.

  Light and fill cookers and lamps in the open – particularly in training. On operations, you may have to risk lighting them inside your shelter. Make sure the filler cap is properly screwed on, and use the filler funnel to avoid waste. Remember, the naphtha must live in its pit outside your tent.

  Most lamps and cookers need pre-heating to generate a gas pressure build-up before you can light them. Use “meta” (methylated spirit impregnated blocks) to do this – never use naphtha.

  1 Fill the tank and screw down the cap firmly.

  2 Check that the mantle is undamaged.

  3 Lift the glass by slackening the vent
ilator nut and place four lighted meta blocks around the bottom.

  4 Pump up the pressure vigorously while the meta blocks burn.

  5 Switch the fuel on and if you have sufficient pressure the fuel will vaporize and the mantle will glow. If not you will end up with a small fire in the glass. If this happens, switch off the fuel and start again.

  Arctic tent group stores

  The list below gives the usual cooking and lighting equipment for an eight man tent group. The kit is set up and used by the cook but is distributed throughout the group to spread the weight. Ideally it will be carried on a pulk, as the tent group can survive without it.

  1 Paraffin fuel containers

  2 Funnel

  3 Paraffin lamp

  4 Lamp carrying case

  5 Saucepans for melting snow and ice for cooking

  6 Pressure cooker

  7 Peak fuel cooker

  8 Issue fuel cooker

  9 Saucepan and frying pan handles

  10 Frying pans

  11 Pressure cooker inserts

  12 Snow melting tins

  13 Meta fuel blocks (for lamps)

  WATER

  Thirst is a major problem in the Arctic; in order to conserve fuel for other purposes the survivor often deprives himself of drinking water from melting ice and snow, and the time and energy required to chop and collect ice for water also limits the supply. You may become dangerously dehydrated in the Arctic as easily as in the desert.

  Remember

  1 You need about 50 per cent more fuel to produce the same quantity of water from snow than from melting ice.

  2 It is safe, within limits, to eat snow as long as you allow the snow to thaw sufficiently to be moulded into a stick or ball.

  3 Do not eat snow in its natural state; it will cause dehydration and chill your body.

  4 Do not eat crushed ice as it may cause injury to your lips and tongue.

  5 Any surface that absorbs the sun’s heat can be used to melt ice or snow, e.g. a flat rock, a dark tarpaulin or a signal panel.

  6 The milky water of glacial streams can be drunk once the sediment has been allowed to settle out.

  Rules of health

  1 Keep fit – You burn enormous amounts of energy just doing simple jobs. The fitter you are, the less energy you burn, and you can work without becoming exhausted. This reduces the danger of freezing.

  2 Drink plenty of water – Dehydration causes tiredness. Drink even if you are not thirsty. Do not eat unmelted snow; it chills your body and can give you cramps.

  3 Eat your rations – Even if you’re not hungry, keep eating. Regular hot food will keep you at your peak.

  4 Maintain a positive attitude – Keep alert and, above all cheerful. You can make it!

  ELEMENTS FOR SURVIVAL

  The secret of successful travel in the Arctic is adequate clothing, sufficient food, rest and a steady pace. You must have your kit; unless properly equipped, the best course of action is to “hole up” and hope that the friendlies find you before the enemy does.

  EMERGENCY FOOD

  There is little to eat in the Arctic in winter, but in an emergency there are some possibilities. Look out for bird and animal tracks; these may lead you to their sources of food which will probably be safe to eat.

  But beware; if you find berries or something you don’t recognize, they may be poisonous. Try a small quantity on your tongue first of all, and if there are no ill effects eat a little; wait up to eight hours and then eat a bit more. If after another eight hours you are all right, you can be reasonably sure that the food is safe. Be specially wary of fungi; don’t touch them in training unless one of you is a real expert.

  For safety, then you are limited to animals, birds and fish.

  24 HOUR ARCTIC RATION PACKS

  Spare Arctic Ration packs are carried by each man as part of his survival kit. These rations will buy you the time to find help or find or catch food.

  The packs contain:

  1 Sugar packets

  2 Powdered milk

  3 Beef stock drink

  4 Instant tea

  5 Instant coffee

  6 Instant dried apple and apricot flakes

  7 Vegetable soup

  8 Dehydrated beef curry

  9 Rice

  10 Dried peas

  11 Tissues

  12 Matches

  13 Salt

  14 Chocolate drink

  15 Rolled oats mix

  16 Sugar

  17 Biscuits fruit AB

  18 Nuts and raisins

  19 Biscuits brown AB

  20 Toilet paper

  21 Milk chocolate

  22 Beef spread

  23 Chocolate and biscuit bar

  24 Dextrose tablets

  25 Chocolate covered caramels

  Animals

  Arctic animals range from reindeer, moose and bear (brown and polar) to hares, rabbits, squirrels and lemmings (look under rocks for these). You will also come across wolves and foxes.

  Look at the snow in the mornings and you will realize from the number of tracks just how much wildlife there is. The closer to the treeline or shoreline you are, the more abundant wildlife becomes, even in winter.

  Hunting animals is a skill, but you will soon master it if your life depends on it. Points to remember are:

  1 Always hunt up-wind (with the wind in your face)

  2 Move slowly

  3 Try to stalk from above

  4 Crawl if you are on exposed ground; move while the animal is feeding and freeze when it lifts its head up.

  5 Don’t take too long a shot, and if using issue ammo (which has solid heads) shoot through the heart, although small ground game may have to be shot through the head.

  6 A sharp whistle will cause most animals to stop; time enough to give you the chance of a shot.

  Birds

  The most common Arctic bird is the ptarmigan or snow grouse, which is relatively tame and can be killed with a stick or stone in a trap. There are owls and ravens too, but both are wily and you will need a baited trap. Near the coast, you will find gulls; these can be killed with a gorge hook. To trap birds you need some sort of cage system to be triggered as the bird takes the bait or by you from a hidden position.

  Seals and walruses

  These are found along the coastline or, on a good day, lying next to their breathing holes out on the ice. Both have large amounts of blubber, which is useful for cooking, heating and lighting, and is also edible, along with the flesh. You need to take great care when stalking a seal, and ideally you should shoot it through the head; this will make sure it cannot reach its breathing hole, and it will float if it’s in the water.

  Snares

  If you do not have any customized snares you can use string or light wire. The secret of success is to make sure that the slide moves smoothly; you can improvise with bone or a button, or a spring-loaded system. Once it is set, run a flame round the snare, to reduce human smell. Set the snare on a natural game trail, preferably in a narrow place or gap. Use bait if you can.

  Fish

  There is an abundance of fish in the Arctic, not only in the sea but also under the ice of frozen lakes, generally towards the inflow or outflow. You will have to cut holes in the ice for your lines. Make hooks from safety pins, tin openers, bones, etc.

  Bait can be inedible parts such as the entrails of animals or fish. The best fishing method is to put out night lines, which you check each morning, but where the bait needs to be moved about you must make “jigs” using discarded food tins, silver paper or other shiny material. Cod will take your clasp knife!

  For weights, use stones; for floats, a piece of wood. Animal tendons make very strong traces which are almost invisible and are ideal for attaching hooks to lines.

  The automatic fisherman

  Fish can be caught in winter, through a hole in the ice. Once you have cut it you can stop it freezing over by covering it with brush and heaping snow over the top. Fish tend
to gather in deep pools, so if you are lake fishing cut your hole over the deepest part.

  You will need several holes which you can fish simultaneously using the “automatic fisherman”. The fish pulls the flag upright. You need a one metre pole and enough line to reach well beyond the ice. Attach a spoon-shaped spinner from a ration pack can to the line and place a hook slightly below it.

  IMPROVISED FISH HOOKS

  Wood skewer

  Buried in the bait this hook sticks in the side of the fish’s mouth

  Thorn

  An awkward piece of thorn can be effective when buried in bait

  Thorn

  A thorn bush with large rearward pointing barbs is ideal

  Bone

  A sharp piece of bone can be fixed to a suitable piece of wood

  Nails

  Ordinary nails can be bent into shape or set into wood

  Preparing fish

  Bleeding

  As soon as you catch a fish cut out the gills and large blood vessels next to the backbone

  Scaling

  Remove the scales by scraping with a knife

  Gutting

  Gut the fish by cutting it open and scraping out the guts.

  Skinning

  Some fish such as catfish, have no scales and can be skinned

  Traps and Spears

  Fall log trap for big game

  Large and medium-sized game is usually caught in deadfalls. However this method is only worthwhile if there are sufficient quantities of larger game available.

  Spring and spear trap